Selasa, 25 September 2012

human word

Human use of oil palms may date as far back as 5,000 years; in the late 1800s, archaeologists discovered palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE.[14] It is believed that Arab traders brought the oil palm to Egypt.[15]
Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West African countries, and is widely used as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe, but palm oil was not able to supplant olive oil or butter, and culinary uses of palm oil remained rare outside West Africa until after commercial oil palm plantation development in non-African tropical regions. In the Asante Confederacy, state-owned slaves built large plantations of oil palm trees, while in the neighbouring Kingdom of Dahomey, King Ghezo passed a law in 1856 forbidding his subjects from cutting down oil palms.
Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.[16] Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight" soap, and the American Palmolive brand.[17] By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s.[citation needed]

[edit] Research institutions

In the 1960s, research and development (R&D) in oil palm breeding began to expand after Malaysia's Department of Agriculture established an exchange program with West African economies and four private plantations formed the Oil Palm Genetics Laboratory.[18] The Malaysian government also established Kolej Serdang, which became the Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (UPM) in the 1970s to train agricultural and agroindustrial engineers and agribusiness graduates to conduct research in the field.
In 1979 with support from the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) and UPM, the government set up the Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (Porim),[19] a public-and-private-coordinated institution.[clarification needed] B.C. Sekhar was appointed founder and chairman. Porim's scientists work in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition and potential oleochemical use. Porim was renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000.

[edit] Nutrition

Further information: palmitic acid
Many processed foods contain palm oil as an ingredient.[20] Much of the palm oil that is consumed as food is to some degree oxidized rather than in the fresh state, and this oxidation appears to be responsible for the health risk associated with consuming palm oil.[21]
Palm oil is composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol just like any ordinary fat. It is high in saturated fatty acids. Palm oil gives its name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a large natural source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family.[22]
The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is:[23]
Fatty acid content of palm oil
Type of fatty acid

pct
Myristic saturated C14
  
 1.0%
Palmitic saturated C16
  
 43.5%
Stearic saturated C18
  
 4.3%
Oleic monounsaturated C18
  
 36.6%
Linoleic polyunsaturated C18
  
 9.1%
Other/Unknown
  
 5.5%
black: Saturated; grey: Monounsaturated; blue: Polyunsaturated

[edit] Red palm oil

Red palm oil gets its name from its characteristic dark red color, which comes from carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, the same nutrients that give tomatoes, carrots and other fruits and vegetables their rich colors.
Red palm oil contains at least 10 other carotenes, along with tocopherols and tocotrienols (members of the vitamin E family), CoQ10, phytosterols, and glycolipids.[24] In a 2007 animal study, South African scientists found consumption of red palm oil significantly decreased p38-MAPK phosphorylation in rat hearts subjected to a high-cholesterol diet.[25]
Since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended into mayonnaise and salad oil.[26] Red palm oil antioxidants like tocotrienols and carotenes are added to foods and cosmetics because of their purported health benefits.[27][28][29]
A 2009 study[30] tested the emission rates of acrolein, a toxic and malodorous breakdown product from glycerol, from the deep-frying of potatoes in red palm, olive and polyunsaturated oils. The study found higher acrolein emission rates from the polyunsaturated oils (the scientists characterized red palm oil as "mono-unsaturated").

[edit] Refined, bleached, deodorized palm oil

After milling, various palm oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid (stearin), and liquid (olein) fractions.[31] Then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached.[clarification needed] Next, physical refining[clarification needed] removes smells and coloration, to produce "refined bleached deodorized palm oil", or RBDPO, and free sheer[clarification needed] fatty acids, which are used in the manufacture of soaps, washing powder and other products. RBDPO is the basic oil product sold on the world's commodity markets, although many companies fractionate it further to produce palm olein for cooking oil, or process it into other products.[31]

[edit] Other uses

Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm (aluminum naphthenate and aluminum palmitate).[32]
Many processed foods contain palm oil as an ingredient.[20] The highly saturated nature of palm oil, while undesirable from the health perspective, renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it a cheap substitute for butter in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods: in this respect, it is less of a health-hazard than the alternative substitute of partially hydrogenated trans fat.
Splitting of oils and fats by hydrolysis, or under basic conditions saponification, yields fatty acids, with glycerin (glycerol) as a byproduct. The split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging in carbon chain length from C4 to C18, depending on the type of oil or fat.[33][34]

[edit] Biodiesel

Main article: Biodiesel
Palm oil, like other vegetable oils, can be used to create biodiesel, as either a simply processed palm oil mixed with petrodiesel, or processed through transesterification to create a palm oil methyl ester blend, which meets the international EN 14214 specification. Glycerin is a byproduct of transesterification. The actual process used to produce biodiesel around the world varies between countries and the requirements of different markets. Next-generation biofuel production processes are also being tested in relatively small trial quantities.
The IEA predicts biofuels usage in Asian countries will remain modest. But as a major producer of palm oil, the Malaysian government is encouraging the production of biofuel feedstock and the building of palm oil biodiesel plants. Domestically, Malaysia is preparing to change from diesel to biofuels by 2008, including drafting legislation that will make the switch mandatory.
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 This article is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2010)
From 2007, all diesel sold in Malaysia must contain 5% palm oil. Malaysia is emerging as one of the leading biofuel producers, with 91 palm oil plants approved and a handful now in operation.[35]
On 16 December 2007, Malaysia opened its first biodiesel plant in the state of Pahang, with an annual capacity of 100,000 tonnes, and which also produces byproducts in the form of 4,000 tonnes of palm fatty acid distillate and 12,000 tonnes of pharmaceutical-grade glycerine.[36] Neste Oil of Finland plans to produce 800,000 tonnes of biodiesel per year from Malaysian palm oil in a new Singapore refinery from 2010, which will make it the largest biofuel plant in the world,[37] and 170,000 tpa from its first second-generation plant in Finland from 2007-8, which can refine fuel from a variety of sources. Neste and the Finnish government are using this paraffinic fuel in some public buses in the Helsinki area as a small scale pilot.[38][39]
First generation biodiesel production from palm oil is in demand globally. Palm oil is also a primary substitute for rapeseed oil in Europe, which too is experiencing new demand for biodiesel purposes. Palm oil producers are investing heavily in the refineries needed for biodiesel. In Malaysia, companies have been merging, buying others out and forming alliances to obtain the economies of scale needed to handle the high costs caused by increased feedstock prices. New refineries are being built across Asia and Europe.[40]
As the food vs. fuel debate mounts, research is turning to biodiesel production from waste. In Malaysia, an estimated 50,000 tonnes of used frying oils, both vegetable oils and animal fats, are disposed of yearly, without treatment, as wastes. In a 2006 study, researchers found used frying oil (mainly palm olein), after pretreatment with silica gel, is a suitable feedstock for conversion to methyl esters by catalytic reaction using sodium hydroxide. The methyl esters produced have fuel properties comparable to those of petroleum diesel, and can be used in unmodified diesel engines.[41]
A 2009 study by scientists at Malaysian Science University concluded palm oil, compared to other vegetable oils, is a healthy source of edible oil and at the same time, available in quantities that can satisfy global demand for biodiesel. Oil palm planting and palm oil consumption circumvents the food vs. fuel debate because it has the capacity to fulfill both demands simultaneously.[42] By 2050, a British scientist estimates global demand for edible oils will probably be around 240 million tonnes, nearly twice 2008 consumption. Most of the additional oil may be palm oil, which has the lowest production cost of the major oils, but soybean oil production will probably also increase. An additional 12,000,000 hectares (46,000 sq mi) of oil palms may be required, if average yields continue to rise as in the past. This need not be at the expense of forest; oil palm planted on anthropogenic grassland could supply all the oil required for edible purposes in 2050.[43]

[edit] Market

According to Hamburg-based Oil World trade journal, in 2008, global production of oils and fats stood at 160 million tonnes. Palm oil and palm kernel oil were jointly the largest contributor, accounting for 48 million tonnes or 30% of the total output. Soybean oil came in second with 37 million tonnes (23%). About 38% of the oils and fats produced in the world were shipped across oceans. Of the 60.3 million tonnes of oils and fats exported around the world, palm oil and palm kernel oil make up close to 60%; Malaysia, with 45% of the market share, dominates the palm oil trade.
Use of Palm Oil rapidly being phased out of ALL food products in Norway from 2012-2013:
Supermarket chain Rema 1000 following several major food manufacturers, cutting out the use of palm oil in the chain's own foods.
Next on the list of food producers is Goman bakeries bakery chain, which will now stop using palmoil throughout its range of fresh breads.
Replaced with canola oil
Goman bakeries are owned by Coop Norway and all Coop supermarkets sell fresh bread from Goman bakeries.
According to a press release any fresh bread produced in Stavanger, Bergen and Kristiansand are now without the controversial oil, while bakeries in southeastern Norway, Trøndelag and Tromsø stop using palm oil from August 2012.
Coop emphasizes that it will take some time to update all the declaration on the bread bags, but that the contents in the breads have been modified from August 2012, where palm oil have been replaced with canola oil.
Since Goman bakeries have 21.3 percent of the market share of breads in Norway, 72 tons of palm oil used in breads have disappeared from the market in Norway.
Tine - the biggest dairy producer in Norway - removes palm oil from pizza crusts
Also Tine is in the process of phasing out palm oil. Pizza crusts will from 1 September 2012 be made with sunflower oil and olive oil instead of palm oil. - The change is a result of long-term innovation. We have spent considerable time and resources to find a solution that is good for both people's health and the environment. At the same time the solution must safeguard the well-known taste and product properties that Norwegian consumers appreciate and expect, says brand manager Tone Mix Hoel from Tine in a statement.
Average sales of pizza crusts is currently 50,000 a week.
New regulations in 2014
The current rules for labeling content of foods, make it very difficult to determine if food contains palm oil. This is because it is allowed to select the generic term "vegetable fat" in the TOC.
New EU rules will require that the content of palm oil to be labeled specifically on foods but this happens only when the new rules enter into force within EU from December 2014.
Regulation must then be incorporated into the EEA Agreement to apply in Norway.
The use of palm oil is controversial because it is considered to be detrimental to people's health, while production of palm oil also leads to huge environmental damages.
- Norwegians eat the rainforest - without knowing it. Major environmental destruction of the rainforests is the consequence of an increasing use of palm oil in foods and other products, the general manager of Green living, Tone Granaas, has stated.
To make Norwegians aware of the content of palm oil in foods, they made a palm oil guide, where you can look up information on how much palm oil specific foods contains.

[44]

[edit] Regional production

Palm oil output in 2006

[edit] Indonesia

As of 2009, Indonesia was the largest producer of palm oil, surpassing Malaysia in 2006, producing more than 20.9 million tonnes. Indonesia aspires to become the world's top producer of palm oil.[45] But at the end of 2010, 60 percent of the output was exported still in the form of Crude Palm Oil.[46] FAO data show production increased by over 400% between 1994–2004, to over 8.66 million metric tonnes.
In addition to servicing traditional markets, Indonesia is looking to put more effort into producing biodiesel. Major local and global companies are building mills and refineries, including PT. Astra Agro Lestari terbuka (150,000 tpa biodiesel refinery), PT. Bakrie Group (a biodiesel factory and new plantations), Surya Dumai Group (biodiesel refinery). Cargill (sometimes operating through CTP Holdings of Singapore, is building new refineries and mills in Malaysia and Indonesia, expanding its Rotterdam refinery to handle 300,000 tpa of palm oil, acquiring plantations in Sumatra, Kalimantan, the Indonesian peninsula and Papua New Guinea). Robert Kuok's Wilmar International Limited has plantations and 25 refineries across Indonesia, to supply feedstock to new biodiesel refineries in Singapore, Riau, Indonesia and Rotterdam.[40] In Kalimantan, the activity of palm oil companies endangers the living space of orangutans. [47]

[edit] Malaysia

In 2008, Malaysia produced 17.7 million tonnes of palm oil on 4,500,000 hectares (17,000 sq mi) of land,[44] and was the second largest producer of palm oil, employing more than 570,000 people.[48] Malaysia is the world's second largest exporter of palm oil. About 60% of palm oil exports from Malaysia are shipped to China, the European Union, Pakistan, United States and India. They are mostly made into cooking oil, margarine, specialty fats and oleochemicals.
In December 2006, the Malaysian government initiated merger of Sime Darby Berhad, Golden Hope Plantations Berhad and Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad to create the world’s largest listed oil palm plantation player.[49] In a landmark deal valued at RM31 billion, the merger involved the businesses of eight listed companies controlled by Permodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB) and the Employees Provident Fund (EPF). A special purpose vehicle, Synergy Drive Sdn Bhd, offered to acquire all the businesses including assets and liabilities of the eight listed companies. With 543,000 hectares of plantation in a landbank, the merger resulted in an oil palm plantation entity that could produce 2.5 million tonnes of palm oil or 5% of global production in 2006. A year later, the merger completed and the entity was renamed Sime Darby Berhad.[50]

[edit] Nigeria

As of 2011, Nigeria was the third-largest producer, with more than 2.5 million hectares (6.2×10^6 acres) under cultivation. Until 1934, Nigeria had been the world's largest producer. Both small- and large-scale producers participated in the industry.[51][52]

[edit] Colombia

In the 1960s, about 18,000 hectares (69 sq mi) were planted with palm. Colombia has now become the largest palm oil producer in the Americas, and 35% of its product is exported as biofuel. In 2006, the Colombian plantation owners' association, Fedepalma, reported that oil palm cultivation was expanding to 1,000,000 hectares (3,900 sq mi). This expansion is being funded, in part, by the United States Agency for International Development to resettle disarmed paramilitary members on arable land, and by the Colombian government, which proposes to expand land use for exportable cash crops to 7,000,000 hectares (27,000 sq mi) by 2020, including oil palms. Fedepalma states that its members are following sustainable guidelines.[53]
Some Afro-Colombians claim that some of these new plantations have been expropriated from them after they had been driven away through poverty and civil war, while armed guards intimidate the remaining people to further depopulate the land, while coca production and trafficking follows in their wake.[54]

[edit] Other producers

[edit] Benin

Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of the economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale, claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land, whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact. They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops.[55][56]

[edit] Kenya

Kenya's domestic production of edible oils covers about a third of its annual demand, estimated at around 380,000 metric tonnes. The rest is imported at a cost of around US$140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating the country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil.[57]

[edit] Ghana

Ghana has a lot of palm nuts vegetation, which can become an important contributor to the agriculture of the Black Star region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries,however,production is now expanding, major investment funds are purchasing plantations as Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil.

[edit] Impacts

[edit] Social

Palm oil producers have been accused of various human-rights violations, from low pay and poor working conditions[58] to theft of land[59] and murder.[60] However, some social initiatives use palm oil profits to finance poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the financing of Magbenteh hospital in Makeni, Sierra Leone through profits made from palm oil grown by small local farmers,[61] the Presbyterian Disaster Assistance's Food Security Program, which draws on a women-run cooperative to grow palm oil, the profits of which are reinvested in food security,[62] or the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations.[63]

[edit] Environmental

Main article: Environmental impact of palm oil
Palm oil production has been documented as a cause of substantial and often irreversible damage to the natural environment.[64] Its impacts include: deforestation, habitat loss of critically endangered species such as the Orangutan[65][66][67][68] and Sumatran Tiger,[69][70] and a significant increase in greenhouse gas emissions.[71] The pollution is exacerbated because many rainforests in Indonesia and Malaysia[72] lie atop peat bogs that store great quantities of carbon that are released when the forests are cut down and the bogs drained to make way for plantations. Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Rainforest-Rescue claim that the deforestation caused by making way for oil palm plantations is far more damaging for the climate than the benefits gained by switching to biofuel.[73][74]
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is an organisation that was formed in 2004 with the objective to promote the growth and use of sustainable oil palm products through credible global standards and engagement of stakeholders (see below). Many of the major companies in the vegetable oil economy participate, though their efforts so far have done almost nothing to change or slow the escalating situation and have been likened to green-washing.[75] In June 2011, RSPO launched its trademark for use by its members. With this trademark producers of products such as chocolate, margarine and cosmetics can show their commitment towards sustainable palm oil through the use of the trademark.[76]
In 2008 Unilever, a member of RSPO, committed to use only palm oil which is certified as sustainable, by ensuring that the large companies and smallholders that supply it convert to sustainable production by 2015.[77] In 2011, PT Carrefour Indonesia reiterated its commitment to exclusively source for sustainable palm oil products by 2015.[78] In August of that same year, RSPO marked one million hectares of certified sustainable land, bringing the volume of sustainable oil to over 5 million tonnes.[79]
Much of the recent investment in new palm plantations for biofuel has been part-funded through carbon credit projects through the Clean Development Mechanism. However, data from the European Union suggests that palm biodiesel is nearly as polluting as fuel from tar sands. The reputational risk associated with unsustainable palm plantations in Indonesia has now made many funds wary of investing there.[80]

[edit] Health

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[edit] Blood lipid and cholesterol effects

The Center for Science in the Public Interest cites meta-analysis that point to excessive intake of palmitic acid (the major saturated fatty acid in palm oil, which is also present in other food sources) as a culprit in heart disease.[81] The CSPI report cited research that goes back to 1970[82] and metastudies.[83][84] CSPI also said that The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute,[85] World Health Organization (WHO), and other health authorities have urged reduced consumption of palm oil. WHO states that there is convincing evidence that palmitic acid consumption contributes to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.[86] 2005 research in Costa Rica suggests consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils over palm oil.[87]
In 1993, Malaysia's Institute for Medical Research's head of Cardiovascular Disease Unit Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Centre Dr Tony Ng Kock Wai[88] showed that the cholesterol impact of saturated fats is affected by its amount at the sn-2 position. Despite the high palmitic acid content (41%) of palm oil, only 13-14% is present at the sn-2 position.[89]
In an email response to WHO's 2002 draft report, Dr. David Kritchevsky of the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia denied that there were, at that time, any data showing palm oil consumption causing atherosclerosis.[90]
However, a 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Service concluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry, because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B just as trans fat does.[91][92]
[edit] Comparison with animal saturated fat
Not all saturated fats are equally cholesterolemic.[93] Studies have indicated that consumption of palm olein (which is more unsaturated) reduces blood cholesterol when compared to sources of saturated fats like coconut oil, dairy and animal fats.[94]
In 1996, Dr Becker of University of Massachusetts Medical School stressed that saturated fats in the sn–1 and -3 position of triacylglycerols exhibit different metabolic patterns because of their low absorptivity. Dietary fats containing saturated fats primarily in sn–1 and -3 positions (e.g., cocoa butter, coconut oil, and palm oil) have very different biological consequences than those fats in which the saturated fats are primarily in the sn–2 position (e.g., milk fat and lard). Differences in stereospecific fatty acid location should be an important consideration in the design and interpretation of lipid nutrition studies and in the production of specialty food products.[95]
[edit] Side note
Although palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness. [96]

[edit] Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

Main article: Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil
RT2 (Roundtable No 2) in Zurich in 2005.
Roundtable No 2 (RT2) in Zurich in 2005.
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was formed in 2004 with the objective of promoting the growth and use of sustainable oil palm products through credible global standards and engagement of stakeholders. The seat of the association is in Zurich, Switzerland, while the secretariat is currently based in Kuala Lumpur with a satellite office in Jakarta.
RSPO is a not-for-profit association that represents stakeholders from seven sectors of the palm oil industry - oil palm producers, palm oil processors or traders, consumer goods manufacturers, retailers, banks and investors, environmental or nature conservation NGOs and social or developmental NGOs - to develop and implement global standards for sustainable palm oil.
Such multi-stakeholder representation is mirrored in the governance structure of RSPO such that seats in the Executive Board and project level Working Groups are fairly allocated to each sector. In this way, RSPO lives out the philosophy of the "roundtable" by giving equal rights to each stakeholder group to bring group-specific agendas to the roundtable, facilitating traditionally adversarial stakeholders and business competitors to work together towards a common objective and making decisions by consensus
The organization holds an annual meeting called RT or Round Table Meetings to bring together the various stakeholders to negotiate and deliberate on various issues affecting the industry. Such multi-stakeholder representation is mirrored in the governance structure of RSPO such that seats in the Executive Board and project level Working Groups are fairly allocated to each sector.
Some of the key achievements of the organization so far include:
  • Establishment of the RSPO Principles & Criteria (P&C) for certification of mills and plantations;
  • Formation of Working Groups on Green House Gases to address climate change issues;
  • Smallholder Task Force to protect the rights of small farmers planting oil palm; and
  • Biodiversity Technical Committee to work out biodiversity issues pertaining to sustainable production and biodiversity protection and conservation.[97]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Reeves, James B.; Weihrauch, John L.; Consumer and Food Economics Institute (1979). Composition of foods: fats and oils. Agriculture handbook 8-4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration. p. 4. OCLC 5301713. 
  2. ^ Poku, Kwasi (2002). "Origin of oil palm". Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 148. Food and Agriculture Organization. ISBN 92-5-104859-2. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/y4355e/y4355e03.htm. [page needed]
  3. ^ Harold McGee. On Food And Cooking: The Science And Lore Of The Kitchen, Scribner, 2004 edition. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1
  4. ^ Cottrell, RC (1991). "Introduction: nutritional aspects of palm oil". The American journal of clinical nutrition 53 (4 Suppl): 989S–1009S. PMID 2012022. 
  5. ^ US Federal Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act, 21 CFR 101.25 as amended in Federal Register July 19, 1990, Vol.55 No.139 pg.29472[verification needed]
  6. ^ UK Food Labelling Regulations (SI 1984, No.1305)[verification needed]
  7. ^ Medical nutrition & disease: a case-based approach. p. 202. ISBN 0-632-04658-9. 
  8. ^ Mensink, RP; Katan, MB (1992). "Effect of dietary fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins. A meta-analysis of 27 trials.". Arterioscler Thromb 12 (8): 911–?. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.12.8.911. 
  9. ^ "Palm Oil Continues to Dominate Global Consumption in 2006/07" (Press release). United States Department of Agriculture. June 2006. http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2006/06-06/Junecov.pdf. Retrieved 22 September 2009. 
  10. ^ Che Man, YB; Liu, J.L.; Jamilah, B.; Rahman, R. Abdul (1999). "Quality changes of RBD palm olein, soybean oil and their blends during deep-fat frying". Journal of Food Lipids 6 (3): 181–193. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4522.1999.tb00142.x. 
  11. ^ Matthäus, Bertrand (2007). "Use of palm oil for frying in comparison with other high-stability oils". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 109 (4): 400. doi:10.1002/ejlt.200600294. 
  12. ^ International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species; Pongo pygmaeus. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/17975/0 . Accessed: 2012-04-12
  13. ^ Natasha Gilbert (04 July 2012). "Palm-oil boom raises conservation concerns: Industry urged towards sustainable farming practices as rising demand drives deforestation". Nature. http://www.nature.com/news/palm-oil-boom-raises-conservation-concerns-1.10936. 
  14. ^ Kiple, Kenneth F.; Conee Ornelas, Kriemhild, eds. (2000). The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521402166. http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/palmoil.htm. Retrieved 30 August 2012. 
  15. ^ Obahiagbon, F.I. (2012). "A Review: Aspects of the African Oil Palm (Elaeis guineesis Jacq.)". American Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: 1-14. doi:10.3923/ajbmb.2012. http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/academicjournals/ajbmb/0000/38799-38799.pdf. Retrieved 30 August 2012. 
  16. ^ S.O. AGHALINO. BRITISH COLONIAL POLICIES AND THE OIL PALM INDUSTRY IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA, 1900-1960. African Study Monographs, 21(1): 19-33, January 2000. http://www.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf. Accessed 2012-4-1
  17. ^ Bellis, Mary. "The History of Soaps and Detergents". About.com. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsoap.htm. "In 1864, Caleb Johnson founded a soap company called B.J. Johnson Soap Co., in Milwaukee. In 1898, this company introduced a soap made of palm and olive oils, called Palmolive." 
  18. ^ Hartley, C. W. S. (1988). The Oil Palm, 3rd edn. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, U.K.
  19. ^ Development of Palm Oil and Related Products in Malaysia and Indonesia Rajah Rasiah & Azmi Shahrin, Universiti Malaya, 2006
  20. ^ a b "Palm oil products and the weekly shop". BBC Panorama. 22 February 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/panorama/hi/front_page/newsid_8517000/8517093.stm. Retrieved 22 February 2010. 
  21. ^ Edem, D.O. (2002). "Palm oil: Biochemical, physiological, nutritional, hematological and toxicological aspects: A review". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Formerly Qualitas Plantarum) 57 (3): 319–341. http://www.springerlink.com/content/v13gn1r586078t45/. 
  22. ^ "Welcome to Tocotrienol Resource Website". Tocotrienol.org. http://www.tocotrienol.org/en/index/sources.html. Retrieved 2012-06-15. 
  23. ^ searched for Oil, Palm
  24. ^ Valuable minor constituents of commercial red palm olein: carotenoids, vitamin E, ubiquinones and sterols Bonnie Tay Yen Ping and Choo Yuen May, Journal of Oil Palm Research, Vol 12, No 1, June 2000, pg14-24
  25. ^ Kruger, MJ; Engelbrecht, AM; Esterhuyse, J; Du Toit, EF; Van Rooyen, J (2007). "Dietary red palm oil reduces ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rats fed a hypercholesterolaemic diet". The British journal of nutrition 97 (4): 653–60. doi:10.1017/S0007114507658991. PMID 17349077. 
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